The key Construct affirmed by behavioral marital therapy that account for marital discord can be conceptualized in terms of the rewards and punishments that spouses exchange in their daily interaction and in their communication. Typical problem areas are finances, sex, child rearing and in-laws. Within such typical problem areas are difficulties that spouses have in their communications sills, in assertiveness, in marital agreement, and in cognitive functioning. By cognitive functioning, this construct addresses the irrational, unrealistic and unconscious thoughts of spouses about themselves and their partners. It should also be noted that the affective or emotional components of marital interaction (especially in the areas of reciprocity of affect) is an important construct as well. Additionally, the family interaction system in the marital domain has taken on a more recent analysis of such trait-like constructs as dominance, cohesiveness, flexibility, passivity and submissiveness.

Distressed Spouses

Spouses who are distressed exhibit more inappropriate behaviors than non-distressed spouses. As a result, they are more reactive to one another and are unable to resolve or neutralize their differences. During marital discord, these spouses have difficulty in the distortion of the message sent from one spouse to the other. These dysfunctional cognitive processes subvert healthy resolution and adjustment. In addition to these cognitive and perceptual biases, there exists the problem of irrational expectations or myths in martial dissatisfaction. Such an example is the statement that “my spouse should love me regardless of my being overweight” or , “my spouse must love everything about me.” These expectations are not only the source of disruption, but they cause emotional hurt and anger. Other such dysfunctional beliefs are that spouses should know one another’s feelings and cognitions without even asking; spouses should be sexually perfect in a marriage and, we are not supposed to be different in our beliefs and feelings because these differences will cause marital conflict. Obviously, sexes are different, individuals, are different from one another, the list of dysfunctional cognitions is in no way an exhaustive list.

Attributional Theory

Attributional theory, which examines how people make causal explanations, suggests that distressed spouses were particularly likely to attribute their partner’s negative behavior to internal factors and non-distressed spouses were likely to attribute the partners’ positive behaviors to internal factors. Dysfunctional couples find fault with their partner’s positive behavior and attribute the cause to outside circumstances and believe that the cause of such behaviors are unstable. In regard to negative behaviors, distressed spouses attributed the cause of these behaviors to the partner’s personality traits. Hence, different cognitive processing occurs in distressed, as well as in non-distressed couples. In conclusion, it can be said, that much of the recent research in the area of marital dissatisfaction has focused on the evaluation of cognitions, expectations, beliefs and attributions. It is this author’s impression that cognitive variable both cause important marital dysfunction and stand as bi-products of such dysfunctional states.

Affect

Recently, the assessment of affect (affection, calm, anger and distress) was examined through physiological measures. Constructive communication, which may begin in the form of a conflict (distress and anger), eventually ends with affection and calm. In destructive communication and conflicts, anger and distress continue to proportionately rise; they never end in any constructive interaction.

What Types of Couples are Good Candidates are Good Candidates for Marriage Therapy?
Couples who suffer unfavorable prognosis are :

1. Couples who have been separated before; or those who are thinking of separation or divorce.
2. Those whose frequently of sexual intercourse has decreased less than twice a month.
3. Both man and wife score low on measures of affection, caring and tenderness.
4. The wife and/or husband carry on poor communication and score low on “togetherness.”

Certainly, the recent research in the are of marital behavioral therapy comes as no great surprise when the empirically amassed evidence presented suggests that distressed couples exhibit more negative behaviors and fewer positive behaviors. However, the variables being examined in research, that are not so obvious are for example, physiological arousal, sequential patterning during important events in the home, naturally occurring attributions, and relationship among family sub-systems.

Divorce Therapy

Divorce therapy is an emerging therapeutic field which is oriented toward assisting divorced couples in achieving an improved mental and emotional state, in addition to helping them in achieving in legal one. Divorce therapy deals with the orientation toward successful resolution of the marital bonds in order that both spouses emerge with their separate identities and assume an autonomous function in life in the future. Healthy resolution suggests that the divorced person should not be preoccupied with past emotions and issues relating to the prior marriage and divorce. An unhealthy emotional divorce is reflected in a variety of issues, such as, the use of children as intermediaries in parental conflicts, the inability of the spouses to establish a satisfactory new life following divorce includes unresolved mourning over the loss of a spouse and marriage and over continued anger, frustration and hostility. The goal of divorce therapy is to assist the spouses in resolving emotional conflicts, and the spouse. In divorce therapy, the therapist is goal-oriented in first establishing rapport with each couple, to gain their trust and confidence, and to assist them with the decision to divorce, or not divorce, and negotiate the issues involved (such as child custody). Important emphasis in the divorce therapy is the clarification of issues therapy is the clarification of issues involved that are conductive to healthy decision-making and the promoting of agreements on important issues.

Divorces is a likely outcome, particularly in couples encountering marital conflicts at the time of mid-life crisis or in the age range of 40, a time of transition. The imminent danger in moving toward divorce is the rapidity of decision-making that one or the other or both spouses may cling on to. If mutually exclusive decisions are made in the marriage, it does not afford for realistic assessment of the issues. Often there is a need for an adjustment in the marital roles rather than in the termination of a marriage. However, where a couple has been through a particular hardship or stress, and there has been a long period of emotional divorce, the impact of therapeutic intervention is minimized. In this type of divorce situation, therapeutic treatment should emphasize either a rejoining or separation of the lives involved, whichever is in the best interest of the individual’s emotional growth.

Divorce Mediation

The objective of divorce meditation is to assist the couples in resolving disagreements in a non-adversarial manner. This process is oriented towards a final compliant divorce settlement.

Hypnosis and the Power of suggestion

Many athletes perform either under hypnotic induction or in trance. Hypnosis works when it follows the formal lessons in self-hypnosis. The positive effect of hypnosis in influencing athletic performance comes out of the motivational instructions that are presented. The ideal performance, images and fantasies seem to play a part in overcoming the blockage to enhance optimal performance. If hypnosis is to be effective, then the use of suggestion must be aimed at ego-building rather than ego-defeating statements. The use of hypnosis is not just to achieve maximum effort during competition, but to improve all of the qualities necessary to make a champion athlete. These are directed at encouraging permanent habits, attitudes and skills which tend to be more dominant in right-brain function.

Training Techniques

In a study that probed “Neural Experimental Growth Potentials for the Treatments of Accidental Traumas, Debilitating Stress Conditions and Chronic Emotional Blocking, “in the Journal of Mental Imagery, II, 1 through 22, researched in 1976 by Ashen, actual neural growth occurs as a result of mental imagery. As number of studies support the facilitating effects of mental training. Studies which have demonstrated the effectiveness of mental processes-in –training are Hall and Erffmeyer, 1983, Weinberg etal, 1982 and Vandel etal, 1943. It should be noted, however, that neither hypnosis nor mental training can turn everyone into a medalist. No amount of hypnosis will allow a weekend athlete to win a seasoned athletic event. Hypnosis simply helps the athlete perform at his best. And that is what athletes must understand about hypnosis; that it can make the most of themselves so they are able to perform at or near their peak.

In order to perform well in sport psychology, there are seven types of discipline-or categories-of training required: 1) physical skill training, (2) physical fitness training, (3) concentration, (4) affective control, (5) relaxation, (6) goal setting and (7) hypnosis.

Physical Skill Training: Physical skill training involves practicing the sport, rehearsing one’s performance, doing the drills and playing practice games, matches or simulating competition. Jack Nicklaus said that he never hit a golf ball without first visualizing it landing exactly where he wished. There are two basis types of imagery rehearsal: process and result. Process imagery is imagining the various steps that must be undertaken in order to accomplish a specific task. For example, a golfer would imagine the proper swing of his club and the position of his body –that is the process of making a successful stroke or drive. The athlete might then imagine the ball landing in just the precise spot and then imagine the feeling of elation or success that would accompany winning. This is result imagery. Teaching athletes self-hypnosis is perhaps the best way to have them perform mental rehearsals before their activity.
Physical Fitness Training : Physical fitness training includes: running, diet, sleep, regimen, weight lifting, working out on exercise machines and so on. Over the past decade, there has been a proliferation of equipment for both training and assessment of physical fitness.

Concentration: Because hypnosis is a process of focused attention, it can enhance concentration on a physical activity. First, it is important to eliminate distractions in nearly every sport, inasmuch as one experiences the effect of sound, sight and physical distractions which surround the event and can thus impede one’s concentration and performance. By preventing themselves from distraction, athletes perform at a higher optimal level. The use of posthypnotic suggestion and cues can be developed for any sport. Whenever athletes desire increased concentration, they need only think about the cue and about how they are focused to a purpose, and become more focused in their performance. Asking athletes to share in the step-by-step process of which they must to through before competition will help in finding and developing such cues for sport or activity. The next process in concentration is the focus upon the specific task, the crux of optimal performance. For example, before the gun fires the swimmer may take a deep breath and develop deep concentration from within. That concentration cab allows the appropriate entry into the water at the exact angle that will affect the placement to begin the appropriate strokes.

Affective Control: Affective control, as it relates to athletic performance, is the control of anxiety and emotion. The Yerkes’ Dodson Law has been used in psychology to explain the relationship between emotions or arousal in performance. Arousal and anxiety are related to performance and achievement in a curvilinear manner or a U-shaped curve. With low arousal performance tends not to be very good. As arousal, anxiety or motivation becomes greater performance improves. As arousal increases further still, performance begins to fall as the high tension presumably interferes with the high tension presumably interferes with the execution of the task. Anxiety often occurs as a result of stress. It can also occur because athletes have developed a disposition for anxiety reaction overtime (conditioning). Treatment for control over the anxiety must deal with individual differences as well as the situational demands in the sport performance. Any technique used to “hype” athletes is questionable, especially if athletes are performing out of high-competence motivation. They do not need to be aroused for competition by external means; the excitement and anticipation, of competence and competition will summon enough energy for performance. Often, there is either too much pressure of the performer to achieve or too little social support and meaning for what the individual athlete does. Successful sport programs are those which have a strong support system.

Relaxation: Relaxation techniques can be used for cognitive restricting, for mental practice and for visual motor behavioral rehearsal. Since physical tension is counter-productive to athletic performance, relaxation becomes an important goal. Relaxation is preferable to anxiety, though theoretically, it is possible for athletes to become too relaxed to the point where they are complacent and lose the competitive edge (this tends to be more hypothetical and uncommon). If relaxation is practiced every day or two or two or three weeks, the athlete will probably be able to relax specific muscle groups at will. This skill can be used to reduce anxiety and tension before practice and competition or to control nerves at other stressful times. Techniques used in this manner are progressive relaxation, imagery and hypno-relaxation therapy, therapeutic massage which can both be part of or lead to hypnotic induction. Posthypnotic cues facilitate self-hypnosis later enter the same level of relaxation and focus, they can do so). It should be noted that mental relaxation affects greater mental alertness. This type of mental alertness is a positive feature, and it produces better physical and mental reactions as well as better physical coordination.

Goal Setting: Specific, reasonable and realistic goals must be set by the athletes, coach and the sport psychologist. Goal orientation is expressed when athletes are asked or encouraged to record what areas and to what degree they may wish to improve as well as over what length of time. A competitive swimmer’s realistic goals might be in developing a smoother stroke first, then increasing speed by one-half of a second every two weeks. Mental imagery of a smooth, gliding stroke pulling him/her forward could be more and more rapid until imagery of a paddle wheel can be visualized speeding through the water. Just as athletes do not expect that a few hours or day of hypnosis will make them world champions.

Hypnosis: Teaching athletes hypnosis is perhaps the best way to encourage them to perform mental rehearsal of their activities. While they’re in self-hypnosis, they can be encouraged to imagine each specific facet of their performance or their game. They can begin with the earliest preparations for performance, while they imagine lacing up their shoes or removing their clothing or equipment in order to reinforce the posthypnotic cues associated with such preliminary actions. For example: A professional tennis player had difficulty with performance anxiety; his performance was just for fun and games when there were no important spectators. But if his family or professional scouting agents were watching, his playing was poor. Therefore, a set of posthypnotic cues which began in the locker room was developed. In fact, the locker itself was cue for him to “pack away” his tension and anxiety along with his street clothes. He was reminded that the visor of the tennis cap used it as cue for him to shield himself from the tension of the spectators, whoever they may be. Touching his hat brim while performing was a cue for him to shield his anxiety. Moreover, cues of gripping the tennis racket were giving him a better griping the tennis racket were giving him a better grip on his concentration and were helping him imagine the wonderful feeling of acing the match or a serve. By combining these process and result images, this player stopped making the mistakes his anxiety had produced and his continued mental imagery helped him improve his tennis game.

Conclusion: The program of physical skill training, physical fitness training, concentration, affective control, relaxation, goal setting and hypnosis combined with posthypnotic cues can lead to greatly improved performance. Athletes, however, should understand that reasonable and realistic goals and the results of using mental days, even though that could happen. It must be emphasized that program of regular mental training and hypnotic induction should accompany their regular physical workouts and practice.

Other resources related to Sports Psychology
Wikipedia’s Definition of Sports Psychology